Despite the fact that billions of dollars are being poured into reshaping energy infrastructure around the needs of AI, no one has settled on a way to quantify AI’s energy usage. Worse, companies are generally unwilling to disclose their own piece of the puzzle. There are also limitations to estimating the emissions associated with that energy demand, because the grid hosts a complicated, ever-changing mix of energy sources.
It’s a big mess, basically. So, that said, here are the many variables, assumptions, and caveats that we used to calculate the consequences of an AI query. (You can see the full results of our investigation here.)
Measuring the energy a model uses
Companies like OpenAI, dealing in “closed-source” models, generally offer access to their systems through an interface where you input a question and receive an answer. What happens in between—which data center in the world processes your request, the energy it takes to do so, and the carbon intensity of the energy sources used—remains a secret, knowable only to the companies. There are few incentives for them to release this information, and so far, most have not.
That’s why, for our analysis, we looked at open-source models. They serve as a very imperfect proxy but the best one we have. (OpenAI, Microsoft, and Google declined to share specifics on how much energy their closed-source models use.)
The best resources for measuring the energy consumption of open-source AI models are AI Energy Score, ML.Energy, and MLPerf Power. The team behind ML.Energy assisted us with our text and image model calculations, and the team behind AI Energy Score helped with our video model calculations.
Text models
AI models use up energy in two phases: when they initially learn from vast amounts of data, called training, and when they respond to queries, called inference. When ChatGPT was launched a few years ago, training was the focus, as tech companies raced to keep up and build ever-bigger models. But now, inference is where the most energy is used.
The most accurate way to understand how much energy an AI model uses in the inference stage is to directly measure the amount of electricity used by the server handling the request. Servers contain all sorts of components—powerful chips called GPUs that do the bulk of the computing, other chips called CPUs, fans to keep everything cool, and more. Researchers typically measure the amount of power the GPU draws and estimate the rest (more on this shortly).
To do this, we turned to PhD candidate Jae-Won Chung and associate professor Mosharaf Chowdhury at the University of Michigan, who lead the ML.Energy project. Once we collected figures for different models’ GPU energy use from their team, we had to estimate how much energy is used for other processes, like cooling. We examined research literature, including a 2024 paper from Microsoft, to understand how much of a server’s total energy demand GPUs are responsible for. It turns out to be about half. So we took the team’s GPU energy estimate and doubled it to get a sense of total energy demands.
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